The daily life of Roman citizens depended on their status in society. And nowhere has revealed more about everyday life than the remains of Herculaneum, an ancient Roman town in modern-day Ercolano, Italy, buried by volcanic ash and pumice during the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

Archaeologists believe the date of the eruption to be on or after October 17, 79 CE because the people buried in the ash were wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August, plus preserved remains of fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops were typical of October. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October. Also, coins discovered in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th Imperial acclamation among the Emperor's titles which couldn’t have been minted before the second week of September.

Unlike Pompeii, which was primarily buried under volcanic ash, Herculaneum was engulfed by a series of pyroclastic flows. These surges were fast-moving clouds of hot gas, ash, and volcanic material that descended from the volcano at incredibly high temperatures, reaching up to 932°F. Over 60 feet of volcanic materials buried the city, preserving it for centuries. The thick layers of pyroclastic material that covered Herculaneum carbonized and preserved wooden objects such as roofs, beds, and doors, as well as other organic-based materials such as food and papyrus. This level of preservation has provided invaluable insights into daily life in an ancient Roman city.

A farmer drilling a well rediscovered Herculaneum by chance in 1709. Remnants of the city, however, had already been found during earlier earthworks. In the years following the site's uncovering, treasure seekers excavated tunnels and took artifacts. Regular excavations commenced in 1738 and have continued irregularly ever since.

Herculaneum grew into a prosperous seaside retreat, attracting wealthy Romans who built luxurious villas there, drawn by the city’s seaside location and beautiful surroundings. The city thrived under the Roman Empire, with its elite citizens enjoying a high standard of living.

The grand villas, which often included private baths, triclinia (dining rooms), and beautifully decorated atriums, were decorated with frescoes, intricate mosaics, and opulent furnishings..

Layout and Infrastructure
Being much smaller than Pompeii, Herculaneum had a population of only 4,000 to 5,000 people. City planners created a well-organized grid pattern of streets, featuring a mix of residential, commercial, and public buildings.

Because of its smaller size and wealth, Herculaneum enjoyed some advantages in terms of infrastructure. High-quality stone paved the city’s streets. And a sophisticated water system, regulated by valves, brought fresh water to homes through lead pipes connected to the Serino Aqueduct. Public baths, fountains, and elaborate drainage systems demonstrated the city’s Roman engineering prowess.

Daily Life in Herculaneum
Life in Herculaneum, like other Roman cities, revolved around public and private activities. The city had forums, markets, and baths where citizens gathered for social, political, and commercial purposes. The public baths were not only places for bathing but also centers of social life, where people could meet, relax, and discuss the affairs of the day.

Generally, the citizens of Herculaneum began their day before sunrise. Living in a time before electric light, all Roman citizens made the most out of their day and completed all business before sundown. They wasted no time getting ready in the morning. Their breakfasts usually consisted of only a glass of water. They saved washing for the afternoon when they would visit the thermae, or local bathhouse. They filled in the time until supper by strolling, exercising, or gambling.

Children entered the bathhouses free of charge, while adults paid around half a cent, a microscopic sum. The thermae offered every type of bath that ingenuity could devise--- hot baths, cold baths, hot air baths, and swimming pools. Most baths also included enclosed gardens, promenades, and space to exercise. The Romans practiced several sports, including a type of tennis played with the palm of the hand instead of a racquet, and a ball game called harpastum that was somewhat comparable to rugby.

The thermae received water, heated via a complex of furnaces hidden within the walls or under the floors, through the city’s aqueducts. Even the simplest bathhouse was a feat of engineering and a welcoming backdrop for socializing .

The baths closed at sundown, though most left before that, so they would have ample time to eat. Supper was the most important meal in a Roman’s day, considering breakfast consisted of water and lunch of bread with cheese and cold cuts. For patricians, supper could last anywhere between one and four hours. Banquets held in the most lavish villas could last until midnight or after.

Wealthier Romans ate supper in a triclinium, or dining room, which contained not tables and chairs but reclining couches arranged around square tables where the food would be laid out by slaves. Willing and able to defy the forces of gravity, Romans ate while lying on their left side, their weight supported on one arm while they used the other consume food.

Slaves performed almost all of the menial jobs as well as many of the professions such as teachers, doctors, surgeons, and architects. Most of the freedmen worked at various trades, for example, as bakers, fishmongers, or carpenters. Occasionally, poor women would serve the affluent as hairdressers, midwives, or dressmakers.

Those who didn’t live in villas, the middle class, resided in an insula, a tall apartment building. The floor on which a person lived depended on their income. The apartments on the ground or first floor were far more comfortable than those on the top floors. They were spacious, containing separate rooms for dining and sleeping, had glazed windows, and, unlike the other floors, the persons living there paid their rent annually.

Those living on the higher floors paid rent by the day or week for a cramped space, often with only one room to a family. Families on upper floors lived in constant fear of eviction. They had no access to natural light, were hot in the summer and cold in the winter, and had little or no running water, thus no latrina or toilet.

Those who lived in the insulae, especially those living on the lower floors, often didn’t have cooking facilities, so many would frequent one of the many thermopolia—the Roman version of a fast-food outlet that catered to Romans in need of quick, affordable meals. Four to six large dolia, terracotta containers that once held hot meals such as chickpeas, beans, and dried fruit were inset into the counter of the thermopolium.

Wealthier middle class Romans, who didn’t live in villas outside the city, lived in large homes called a domus. These houses had many rooms, including a courtyard, or atrium, beautifully decorated with mosaics and statues, which was the center of family life. As with many of the tenements, the front of this dwelling often contained a shop where the owner would conduct daily business. Behind the shop was the atrium, a reception area where they could greet guests or clients and sometimes conduct private business.

The atrium would often contain a small shrine to a household or ancestral god. The ceiling of the atrium was open and beneath this was a rectangular pool. On rainy days the water that came through this opening was collected and used elsewhere in the domus. On either side of the atrium were smaller rooms, called cubiculum, which served as bedrooms, libraries and offices. Of course, there was ample space available for a triclinium and the kitchen. The family garden lie at the rear of the home.

The home was the domain of the wife. While she was initially restricted from appearing in public, she ran the household and often saw to the education of the children until a tutor could be found. By the end of the Republic, she was even permitted to sit with her husband at dinner, go to the baths, although not at the same time as the men, and attend the theater and games.

Roman Baths
After a busy day conducting business and attending the games, a Roman citizen needed to relax at the baths. Bathing was important to all Romans who visited the baths usually once or twice a week. The baths were a place to socialize and sometimes conduct business.

A typical bath included a gym, health center, swimming pool and sometimes even a bordello for the weathier  guests. Most were very cheap to use and even free on public holidays. A typical bath would have three rooms---a tepidarium or relaxation room, a caldarium or hotter room, and a frigadarium or cooling room. Slaves maintained the heat in the various hot rooms as well as attended to the needs of the wealthy.

Herculaneum’s public baths are remarkably well-preserved, with much of the original decoration intact. The baths provide a glimpse into Roman bathing culture, with separate areas for men and women.