Useful Works of Roman Art
by Bob Brooke
 

Back before wallpaper, carpeting, and paintings on canvases, the Romans used mosaics to decorate and enhance the interiors of their homes and public buildings Not only were their mosaics beautiful works of art, but they were also an invaluable record of everyday items, such as clothes, food, tools, weapons, flora and fauna. They also revealed much about Roman activities like gladiator contests, sports, agriculture, hunting, and sometimes they even captured the Romans, themselves, in detailed and realistic portraits.

Mosaics, known to the Romans as opus tesellatum, consisted of small black, white and colored squares, laid together to form a design. They cut these tesserae or tessellae from materials such as marble, tile, glass, smalto (glass paste), pottery, stone and even seashells. In laying out a mosaic, they first prepared a base with fresh mortar, then positioned the tesserae as close together as possible, filling any gaps with liquid mortar in a process known as grouting. After the grout had set, they cleaned and polished the completed mosaic.

By the 2nd century BCE, the introduction of smaller fragments of stone, glass, or pottery, allowed for greater detail and complexity in their designs. The designs featured a wide variety of colors with colored grouting to match surrounding tesserae. This particular type of mosaic which used sophisticated coloring and shading to create an effect similar to a painting was known as opus vermiculatum.

Though mosaic artisans preferred marble and limestone for their durability and availability, both were more difficult to work with due to their weight but provided lasting beauty. The combination of stone and glass created mosaics that weren’t only visually appealing but also structurally sound.

Notable sites like Herculaneum and Ostia began displaying these artworks, often featuring geometric patterns and mythological themes. During this time, mosaics also communicated social status, as wealthier households showcased intricate designs, reflecting both local and imported aesthetics.

Artisans created fine details using even smaller pieces, today referred to as micro mosaics. Because of the labor involved in producing these tiny pieces, artisans often placed them in small mosaics, measuring a little over 15 inches square, laid on a marble tray or rimmed tray in a specialist workshop. The Romans called these mosaics emblemata, as they often used them as centerpieces for pavements with more simple designs. So valuable were these works of art that the Romans often removed them for re-use elsewhere. Some families handed them down from generation to generation. Several emblemata could make up a single mosaic and gradually, emblemata began to resemble more their surroundings when they became known as panels.

Originally, the Romans followed the fundamentals of the ancient Greek mosaics and often took their inspiration from the sea motifs and scenes from Greek mythology. and the artists, themselves, as the many signed Roman mosaics often bear Greek names.

Roman mosaics varied greatly, depending on artistic quality, public taste and regional conventions. During the Imperial Period, Roman mosaics reached unprecedented levels of artistry and complexity. This period also marked the emergence of large-scale narrative mosaics, which depicted famous battles and mythological narratives, solidifying mosaics as a major form of artistic expression within Roman cultural heritage.

Both Pompeii and Antioch became renowned for their elaborate mosaics, illustrating daily life, nature, and mythology. Artists utilized rich colors and detailed imagery to create vibrant scenes.

Even though Roman mosaics often copied earlier colored ones, the Romans did develop their own styles. They also created production schools which cultivated their own particular preferences in design, including large-scale hunting scenes and attempts at perspective in the African provinces, impressionistic vegetation, and a foreground observer in the mosaics of Antioch or the European preference for figure panels.

Mosaic artists utilized both colored and monochromatic tiles, allowing for a rich expression of pattern and design. Mosaics could be simple black-and-white geometric patterns or intricate scenes depicting figures and nature. The selection of tesserae contributed to the visual depth and textural variety within the artwork.

The Development of Mosaic Flooring
The dominant Roman style in the Italian peninsula used only black and white tesserae, a taste which lasted into the 3rd century CE and was most often used to represent marine motifs, especially when used for Roman baths. There was also a preference for more two-dimensional representations and an emphasis on geometric designs.

The earliest use of a figure in a mosaic occurred in 115 CE at the Baths of Buticosus in Ostia. In the 2nd century CE silhouetted figures became common. Over time the mosaics became ever more realistic in their portrayal of human figures and accurate and detailed portraits become more common. Meanwhile, in the Eastern part of the Empire and especially at Antioch, the 4th century CE saw the spread of mosaics which used two-dimensional and repeated motifs to create a “carpet” effect.

Floors could also be laid using larger pieces to create designs on a grander scale. Opus signinum flooring used colored mortar-aggregate, usually red, with white tesserae placed to create broad patterns or even scattered randomly. Crosses using five red tesserae and a central tesserae in black were a very common motif throughout the Italian peninsula in the 1st century BCE and continued into the 1st century CE but more typically using only black tiles.

Opus sectile was a second type of flooring which used large colored stone or marble slabs cut into particular shapes. Opus sectile was a technique of Greek origin but the Romans expanded the technique to wall decoration. Used in many public buildings, it wasn’t until the 4th century CE that it became more common in private villas and, under Egyptian influence, that mosaic designers began to use opaque glass as the primary material.

Glass tesserae played a significant role in enhancing the vibrancy of Roman mosaics. Artists used glass in various colors, creating luminous effects that caught the light beautifully. Glass tiles were often used alongside traditional stone tesserae to achieve striking contrasts.

A third type of mosaic flooring was opus vermiculatum, which used small tessellae,
arranged to form intricate images and scenes. This method allowed for fine detailing and shading, making it ideal for depicting more complex subjects, but required the utmost skill in installation.

The Use of Geometric Patterns
Geometric patterns dominated many Roman mosaics, showcasing the Roman’s affinity for order and symmetry. Common motifs include circles, squares, and interlocking shapes that created elaborate designs. These patterns served both aesthetic and symbolic purposes, often representing the universe’s harmony and balance. Designs could vary from simple borders to complex floor patterns that enhanced the interiors of bothpublic and private buildings.

Mythology and Narrative Scenes
The Romans loved mythology and created scenes in their mosaics, allowing for storytelling through visual art. Figural representations of gods, heroes, and mythological events were common, often depicting stories from Roman myths that conveyed moral lessons or celebrated divine favor.

These narrative scenes provided a glimpse into Roman values and beliefs. For example, mosaics depicting Hercules showcased themes of strength and heroism. Many mosaics also depicted scenes from daily life, merging mythological elements with everyday activities. Such combinations made Roman mosaics not just decorative objects but also vessels of cultural heritage and identity.

Regional Styles and Influences
In different regions of the Roman Empire, mosaics reflected local styles and themes. For instance, mosaics from Pompeii often featured intricate designs and vibrant colors that depicted everyday life, mythology, and nature.

Antioch, on the other hand, was known for its stunning use of geometric patterns and elaborate figurative scenes, showcasing the influence of Hellenistic art. The mosaics of Delos frequently illustrated mythological narratives, revealing the intermingling of culture and religion.

Mosaics in the Roman Home
n private homes, mosaics often expressed the personal taste and wealth of the owners. Mosaics often included elements from nature, reflecting the owner’s appreciation for the outdoors. Personalized designs captured stories or characters significant to the homeowner. Dining rooms frequently featured elaborate floor mosaics, often portraying scenes of leisure and abundance, making dining a more luxurious experience.

Many mosaics featured scenes from Roman and Greek mythology. Gods, goddesses, and heroes like Hercules and Achilles were common figures. These images not only represented cultural narratives but also offered a means for homeowners to showcase their education and piety.

Personifications of the four seasons were popular, symbolizing the natural cycle of life and prosperity. Floral patterns, animals, and landscapes also celebrated nature, demonstrating the Romans’ appreciation for the natural world and agricultural abundance.

Scenes of daily life, like banquets, hunting, and athletic competitions, provided insights into the leisure activities of the Roman elite. These images also emphasized the values of strength, courage, and leisure, key aspects of Roman culture

Some mosaics contained portraits of individuals, believed to represent homeowners or r important figures in their lives. These images were a way to commemorate or immortalize family members, ancestors, or historical figures.

Symbolism in Roman Mosaics
Roman mosaics were rich in symbolism, which can sometimes be complex and layered. Birds like the peacock, for example, represented immortality and divine beauty, while other birds symbolized love and freedom. Representations of marine life often symbolized water’s life-giving properties, relevant in bathhouses and domestic settings.
Knotted patterns and labyrinths offered protection, representing the complexity and endurance of life and the afterlife.

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